119. Will or shall? 

The distinctions between will and shall are now strictly observed only by precise speakers. 

Shall is becoming less common especially with the second and third person pronouns. 

With first person pronouns, however, shall is still being used to indicate the simple future. 

In conversation people generally use the shortened form ’ll.

 • We’ll have a party tomorrow. 

• I think I’ll send him a letter. 

In these sentences, according to strict grammatical rules, one has to use shall. 

But ’ll may be the contraction of either shall or will.

 However, research has shown that most people consider ’ll to be a contraction of will, which proves that in actual usage will has been replacing shall.

 Instead of using shall with second and third person pronouns to express a command, promise, threat or determination, people often use other verbs and forms of expression.

 For example, instead of saying ‘You shall go at once’, people often say: • You will have to go at once. 

• You are to go at once. • You must go at once. 

 118. Whose and who’s 

Whose is a possessive word. It is used in questions and relative clauses. 

Who’s is the contraction of who is or who has.

 • Incorrect: Who’s is this coat? 

• Correct: Whose is this coat? 

• Incorrect: Whose is that over there?

 • Correct: Who’s that over there? 

 

 117. Whether and if 

• Incorrect: We haven’t settled the question of if we should move to a new house. 

• Correct: We haven’t settled the question of whether we should move to a new house.

 Only whether is possible after a preposition.

 • Incorrect: They can’t decide if to wait or leave.

 • Correct: They can’t decide whether to wait or leave.

 Only whether can be used before to-infinitives.

 116. Why not + infinitive 

Read the following sentence: 

Why not arrange a party in his honor? 

This means ‘Why should we not arrange a party in his honor?’ 

It is a way of suggesting something for other people’s consideration and acceptance.

 • Incorrect: Why not you buy now and pay later? 

• Correct: Why not buy now and pay later? 

• Incorrect: Why not we dismiss the fellow? 

• Correct: Why not dismiss the fellow? 

This is a very common error which should be carefully avoided. No noun or pronoun should come after why not. 

 116. Why not + infinitive 

Read the following sentence: 

Why not arrange a party in his honor? 

This means ‘Why should we not arrange a party in his honor?’ 

It is a way of suggesting something for other people’s consideration and acceptance.

 • Incorrect: Why not you buy now and pay later? 

• Correct: Why not buy now and pay later? 

• Incorrect: Why not we dismiss the fellow? 

• Correct: Why not dismiss the fellow? 

This is a very common error which should be carefully avoided. No noun or pronoun should come after why not. 

 115. Well and good 

• Incorrect: He speaks English good. 

• Correct: He speaks English well. 

• Incorrect: She speaks well English. 

• Correct: She speaks good English. Well is an adverb. Good is an adjective. Adverbs are used to modify verbs.

 Adjectives are used to modify nouns. 

In the sentence ‘He speaks English well’, the adverb well modifies the verb speaks. 

Similarly, in the sentence ‘She speaks good English’, the adjective good modifies the noun English.

 • Incorrect: She speaks well English. 

• Correct: She speaks English well. Adverbs cannot usually go between the verb and the object. 

 114. -ward and –wards 

• Incorrect: You can’t make a forwards pass in rugby. 

• Correct: You can’t make a forward pass in rugby. 

The words backward(s), forward(s), upward(s), northward(s) etc., do not have the –s when they are used as adjectives. 

When these words are adverbs, they can be used with or without –s. 

 113. Verbs 

The verbs enjoy, avoid, miss, postpone and suggest should be used with a gerund, and not an infinitive. 

• Incorrect: She enjoys to sing. 

• Correct: She enjoys singing.

 • Incorrect: She avoids to meet people. 

• Correct: She avoids meeting people. 

• Incorrect: Mother suggested to consult a doctor. 

• Correct: Mother suggested consulting a doctor. 

 112. Unless and if 

Unless means ‘if not’ and, therefore, it is superfluous to introduce another not into the following clause. 

• Incorrect: Unless you do not give the keys of the safe you will be shot.

 • Correct: Unless you give the keys of the safe, you will be shot. 

• Correct: If you do not give the keys of the safe, you will be shot. 

 111. Two words or one 

The following are written as one word: 

Nowadays, 

somehow, 

anyhow, 

everybody,

  into, 

moreover, 

cannot,

together, 

today, 

sometimes, 

everyone, 

afterwards, 

everywhere, 

nobody, 

meanwhile, 

newspaper, 

outside, 

already,

 anything,

  anyone .

The following are written as two words: 

All right, 

at once, 

some time, 

at least, 

no one, 

on to. 

 110. Transitive verbs 

• Incorrect: Here is my cup; please fill.

 • Correct: Here is my cup; please fill it. 

 • Incorrect: I enjoyed when I went to Paris. 

• Correct: I enjoyed myself when I went to Paris. 

All transitive verbs (e.g. fill, break, take and bring) must have an expressed object. 

Some transitive verbs (e.g. give and lend) must have two objects.

 • Incorrect: I asked for my book, but he didn't give me. 

• Correct: I asked for my book, but he didn't give it to me. 

(Here the pronouns it and me are the objects of the verb give.) 

 109. Too and very 

• Incorrect: The story is too interesting.

 • Correct: The story is very interesting. 

Too means 'more than it ought to be'. It has a negative meaning.

 It is usually followed by to or for. 

Too should not be used in the general sense of very which has a positive meaning.

 • He is too fat. 

• It is too hot to go out. 

 108. Told and asked 

• Incorrect: I asked my servant to bring water. 

• Correct: I told my servant to bring water. 

• Incorrect: I told the teacher to excuse me. 

• Correct: I asked the teacher to excuse me.

 Use 'I told him to...' only towards a person to whom you have a right to give an order.

 Use 'I asked him to...' towards a person of whom you can or want to make a request only. 

 107. Thank you and please

 • Incorrect: 'I have a bad headache.' 'Please? 

• Correct: 'I have a bad headache.' 'I beg your pardon.' 

To ask people what they have said, we use

 'I beg your pardon' (formal) or 'sorry' (informal).

 ‘Please' cannot be used with this meaning. 

• Incorrect: 'Have you got a pen I could use?' 'Yes, please.' 

• Correct: 'Have you got a pen I could use?' 'Yes, here you are.'

We do not use please when we give things to people.

 • Incorrect: 'Thanks a lot!' 'Please' 

• Correct: 'Thanks a lot!' 'That's OK' Please is not used as a reply to 'thanks/thank you'. 

If a reply is necessary, we may say

 'Not at all' (rather formal), 

'You are welcome', 

'Don't mention it',

'That's all right' or 

'That's OK' (very informal).  

• Incorrect: 'Will you have some coffee?' 'No, please.' 

• Correct: 'Will you have some coffee?' 'Yes, please.' 

• Correct: 'Will you have some coffee?' 

'No, thank you.' 'No, please' is always wrong.

 'Yes, please' and 'No, thank you' are the polite replies when accepting and declining an offer. 

 106. Than and as Object pronouns (me, him, her etc) can be used after as and than, especially in an informal style.

 • She is taller than me. 

• He earns as much as her.

• She doesn't sing as well as him. 

In a formal style, we prefer subject + verb after as and than

 • She is taller than I am. 

• He earns as much as she does. 

• She doesn't sing as well as I do. 

Note that a subject form without a verb (e.g. than I) is unusual in this structure in modern English.

 • He ran as fast as me. OR He ran as fast as I did. (More natural than ‘He ran as fast as I’.) 

 105. Suggest 

The verb suggest is used with a that-clause or a gerund (-ing form). 

It cannot be used with a to-infinitive. 

• Incorrect: She suggested to consult a doctor. 

• Correct: She suggested consulting a doctor.

 • Correct: She suggested that I (should) consult a doctor. 

 103. Singular and plural nouns 

The pronouns another, anything, each, everyone, everybody, anyone, someone, somebody, no one, none, much, person, either and neither are  singular and should be followed by singular verbs. 

The pronouns all, some, most, many and people are plural and should be followed by plural verbs. 

• Incorrect: Every people know this. 

• Correct: Every man / everyone knows this.

 • Incorrect: Everyone in the class have handed in work. 

• Correct: Everyone in the class has handed in work. 

• Incorrect: Neither of the boys are correct. 

• Correct: Neither of the boys is correct. 

• Incorrect: Each of the boys were given a prize yesterday.

 • Correct: Each of the boys was given a prize yesterday. 

 102. Sincerely

 • Incorrect: Your sincerely... 

• Incorrect: Your's sincerely 

• Correct: Yours sincerely 

 101. Search and search for 

• Incorrect: When we searched it we found it. 

• Correct: When we searched for it we found it.

• Incorrect: I searched him. 

• Correct: I searched for him. 'I searched him' is only correct when it means 'I looked in his pockets' or something similar. 

 100. Scarcely...when 

It is wrong to use than instead of when in these sentences. 

• Incorrect: Scarcely had I reached the station than the train steamed out. 

• Correct: Scarcely had I reached the station when the train steamed out. 

When scarcely begins the sentence, the auxiliary had must come immediately after it. 

• Incorrect: Scarcely I had solved one problem when another cropped up.

 • Correct: Scarcely had I solved one problem when another cropped up. 

• Correct: I had scarcely solved one problem when another cropped up. 

 92. Positive or comparative? 

• Incorrect: He is becoming strong.

 • Correct: He is becoming stronger. 

• Incorrect: She is getting young. 

• Correct: She is getting younger. 

The sentence 'He is becoming strong' is of course correct English, but the English language has a special fondness for the comparative adjective, instead of a positive adjective, when growth or change is implied in a sentence. 

For example when we are talking of a boy's progress in class, we often say 'He is working better now' thinking of a time past when he worked less

 91. Participles

 • Incorrect: Having bitten the postman, the farmer decided to shoot the dog. 

• Correct: The dog having bitten the postman, the farmer decided to shoot it. 

 Here the first sentence means that it was the farmer who bit the postman and not the dog. 

The participle is a verb-adjective. 

It should be related to a proper subject of reference. 

If the subject is lacking or if a wrong subject is used, the whole sentence will be wrong.

 • Incorrect: Being a rainy day, we didn't go out. 

• Correct: It being a rainy day, we didn't go out. 

• Incorrect: Being too costly for him, he could not buy the watch. 

• Correct: The watch being too costly for him, he could not buy it. 

 90. On the whole and the whole of 

On the whole is used to sum up your opinion of something which is good and bad in parts.

 For instance, you may say, 'The script of the film was bad, but the story was excellent. 

On the whole I enjoyed it.'

 • Incorrect: It is a very good film. I liked it on the whole.

 • Correct: It is a very good film. I liked the whole of it.

 89. On time and in time

 • Incorrect: The meeting must start exactly in time. 

• Correct: The meeting must start exactly on time.

 On time = at the planned time; neither late nor early 

In time = before the last moment; with enough time to spare 

 88. Only 

The word only should be written in front of and next to the word or phrase it modifies. 

Compare:

 • Only John may play in the garden. (= John and nobody else may play in the garden.)

 • John may play only in the garden. (= John may play nowhere else.) 

• John may only play in the garden. (= John may play - but do nothing else - in the garden.) 

 87. On and in 

Use on when the meaning is clearly 'on top of'. Example: 'on a table'. Use in when 'on top of' is not appropriate. 

• Incorrect: He rides in a cycle. 

• Correct: He rides on a cycle. 

• Incorrect: He rides on a car. 

• Correct: He rides in a car. 

• Incorrect: He sat on a tree. 

• Correct: He sat in a tree. 

 86. Numbers 

Write the numbers of kings and queens in Roman characters.

 • Elizabeth II • King George VI Write ordinal numbers (first, second, third etc.) up to twelfth in words except in dates. 

• Incorrect: 

He came a 3rd time. 

• Correct: He came a third time. Write dates thus, 'May 12th' or '12th May' and not thus, 'the 12th of May' or 'the twelfth of May'.

 Write cardinal numbers up to twelve in words, except when telling the time.

 Write cardinal and ordinal numbers above twelve and twelfth in either words or figures as seems in each case the more convenient. 

 85. Nouns with identical singular and plural forms 

Some nouns have identical singular and plural forms. 

Examples are: sheep and deer. 

• This deer is hungry.

 • These deer are hungry. 

 84. Nouns with no plural forms 

Some nouns do not have a plural form.

 Examples are: scenery, furniture, wheat, dust, silverware, information, news, luggage, bread, advice, chess, chewing gum, equipment, grass, permission, publicity, rubbish, traffic etc. 

• Switzerland is known for its scenery. (NOT Switzerland is known for its sceneries.)

 • We bought some furniture yesterday. (NOT We bought some furnitures yesterday.)

 • Have you received any information? (NOT Have you received any informations?)

 • I packed my luggage. (NOT I packed my luggages.) 

• There are no loaves in this shop. (NOT There are no breads in this shop.) 

Nouns that do not have a plural form are usually treated as uncountable nouns. Most uncountable nouns have countable equivalents. 

Advice (uncountable) - a piece of advice (countable) Bread (uncountable) - a piece of bread / a loaf / a roll Equipment - a piece of equipment / a tool Baggage - a piece of baggage Furniture - a piece of furniture / an article of furniture Grass - a blade of grass Information - a piece of information Lightning - a flash of lightning Luck - a bit of luck / a stroke of luck News - a piece of news Poetry - a poem Travel - a journey / a trip Work - a piece of work / a job

 • We bought a piece of furniture yesterday. (NOT We bought a furniture yesterday.) 

• We heard a piece of news. (NOT We heard a news.)

 • I need a piece of equipment to fix this. OR I need a tool to fix this. (NOT I need an equipment to fix this.) • I am learning a new poem. (NOT I am learning a new poetry.) 

• He gave me some advice. OR He gave me a piece of advice. (NOT He gave me an advice.) 

 83. Nouns that do not have a singular form 

Some nouns do not have a singular form. Examples are: oats, cattle, pants, scissors, tongs, shears, trousers, binoculars, shorts and tweezers. 

We cannot say a pants or a cattle. 

• The tongs were by the fireplace. (NOT The tong was by the fireplace.)

 • Tweezers are useful when handling stamps. (NOT A tweezer is useful when handling stamps.)

 The singular aspect of the word is usually indicated by using 'a pair of'. 

Compare: 

• The scissors are in the drawer. 

• A pair of scissors is in the drawer.

 • The garden shears were used to clip the hedge. 

• A pair of garden shears was used to clip the hedge. 

• Trousers were hanging in the cupboard. 

• A pair of trousers was hanging in the cupboard.

 

 82. No sooner ...than 

It is wrong to use when instead of than in these sentences. If no sooner begins the sentence, the auxiliary did or had must come immediately after it.

 • Incorrect: No sooner had she read the telegram when she fainted. 

• Correct: No sooner had she read the telegram than she fainted. 

• Incorrect: No sooner I heard the shot than I rushed to the spot. 

• Correct: No sooner did I hear the shot than I rushed to the spot. 

 81. Nominative and objective case 

Pronouns that are used as subjects of verbs are: I, he, she, we, they and you 

• Neither Alice nor I like the opera. (NOT Neither Alice nor me like the opera. 

Here the pronouns Alice and I are part of the subject.) Pronouns that are used as objects of verbs or prepositions are: me, him, her, us, them and you. 

Note that you do not change its form. 

• I tackled him. (NOT I tackled he. Here him is the object of the verb tackled.) 

 • She sat above me. (NOT She sat above I. Here me is the object of the preposition above.) 

• Between you and me there are few secrets. (NOT Between you and I there are few secrets. 

Here the pronouns you and me are the objects of the preposition between.)

 • There are no problems between him and her. (NOT There are no problems between he and she.) 

• Let you and me do it. (NOT Let you and I do it. Here you and me are the objects of the verb let.) 

• He has given great trouble to my father and me. (NOT He has given great trouble to my father and I. Here my father and I are the objects of the preposition to.)

 Grammarians formerly used to recommend that a pronoun used as the complement of the verb be (is/am/are/was/were), should be in the nominative (subject) form. 

Today the use of the nominative form in such cases is considered extremely formal and over-correct.

 Instead, we use the objective form. 

• It is me. (More natural than It is I.) 

• That was him. (More natural than That was he.) 

  80. Neither, nor and not...either 

Negative additions to negative remarks are made with nor/neither + auxiliary verb + subject 

• Incorrect: 'I can't swim.' 'I also can't'

 • Correct: 'I can't swim.' 'Neither/nor can I.' 

• Incorrect: John didn't come, and Peter didn't too. 

• Correct: John didn't come, neither/nor did Peter. 

Not either means the same as neither and nor. It is preceded by subject + auxiliary verb. 

• Incorrect: 'I can't swim.' 'I also can't.' 

• Correct: 'I can't swim.' 'I can't either.' 

 79. Much and many 

Much is used with singular nouns. 

Many is used with plural nouns. 

• There aren’t many people who can afford cars. 

• Have you got much work to do? 

Much and many are mostly used in questions and negative sentences. 

They are unusual in affirmative clauses except after words like as, so and too.

 • She has got lots of friends. (More natural than ‘She has got many friends.’) 

 78. Maybe and perhaps 

These two words mean the same.

 Maybe is more common in an informal style. 

• Maybe/perhaps he will come.

 Perhaps is often pronounced ‘praps’ by British people.

 In American English, perhaps is rather formal. 

 77. May and can 

Can expresses ability.

 • She can speak English. 

• He can play the piano. 

• Can you speak Hindi?

 Can is also used in the sense of may to give permission, though may is more correct. 

• You can take one of those books. OR You may take one of those books.

 • You can go now. OR You may go now. 

Nowadays, can is also being increasingly used to ask permission.

 • ‘Can I come in, Sir?’ 

 76. Many/much and plenty of/a lot of 

The expressions a lot of, plenty of and a great deal of are preferred in affirmative clauses. 

In questions and negatives, we usually use much or many. 

Compare: 

• I have a lot of work to do. (NOT I have much work to do.)

 • Do you have much work to do? (More natural than ‘Do you have a lot of work to do?’) 

• No, I don’t have much work to do. (More natural than ‘No, I don’t have a lot of work to do’) 

• Plenty of people want to buy cars. 

• Are there many people who want cars? 

• Yes, but there aren’t many people who can afford them. (NOT There aren’t plenty of people who can afford them.)

 Many is occasionally used in the affirmative, but much is almost never used in that way. 

The expressions a lot of, plenty of and a great deal of are almost never used in the negative, but they are occasionally used in questions. 

 75. Lose and loose 

Lose is an irregular verb (lose – lost – lost).

 Loose is the opposite of tight. It is an adjective.

 • She needs to lose oodles of weight. (NOT She needs to loose oodles of weight.) 

• This shirt is loose for me. (NOT This shirt is lose for me.) 

74. Look after and look for 

Look after means ‘take care of’. 

Look for means ‘try to find’.

 • Nurses look after sick people. (= Nurses take care of sick people.)

 • I am looking for my keys. (= I am trying to find my keys.) 

 73. Like and as 

As is followed by a clause. 

Like is followed by a noun. 

• Incorrect: He did like he was told. 

• Correct: He did as he was told. 

• Incorrect: He fought like a tiger does. 

• Correct: He fought like a tiger. 

• Correct: He fought as a tiger does. 

 72. Lie and lay 

• Incorrect: Dad has laid on the sofa all morning. 

• Correct: Dad has lain on the sofa all morning.

 • Incorrect: Mother says she has already lain the table. 

• Correct: Mother says she has already laid the table. 

• Incorrect: The book was lain on the table. 

• Correct: The book was laid on the table. 

• Incorrect: I would like to lay in the sun. 

• Correct: I would like to lie in the sun. 

To lie means to rest. Its different forms are given below: 

Infinitive: lie; -ing form: lying; Past tense: lay; Past participle: lain 

• I lie on the bed. 

• I am lying on the bed. 

• I was lying on the bed. 

• I lay on the bed. 

• I have lain on the bed. 

To lie also means ‘to not tell the truth’. Its different forms are given below: 

Infinitive: lie; -ing form: lying; past tense: lied; past participle: lied 

• I lie. • I am lying. • I was lying. • I lied. • I have lied.

 To lay means ‘to put something down.’

 Its different forms are: Infinitive: lay; -ing form: laying; past tense: laid; past participle: laid 

• I lay the plate on the table. 

• I am laying the plate on the table. 

• I was laying the plate on the table. 

• I laid the plate on the table. 

• I have laid the plate on the table. 

 71. Less and fewer 

Less refers to a quantity that cannot be counted. 

Fewer refers to a number that can be counted. 

Compare:

 • I am eating less meat. 

• We caught fewer fish. 

• There were fewer children in the class than expected.

 • We did less work today than yesterday. 

 70. Kind and kinds, sort and sorts etc.

 The words kind, sort, type and class are singular and should be used with this or that to modify a singular noun. 

The words kinds, sorts, types and classes are plural and should be used with these or those to modify plural nouns.

• Incorrect: I like these kind of mangoes.

 • Correct: I like these kinds of mangoes. 

• Incorrect: I don't like this sort of meat pies. 

• Correct: I don't like this sort of meat pie. 

• Incorrect: Those are the kinds of film I like to watch. 

• Correct: Those are the kinds of films I like to watch.

 • Incorrect: These type of cars are very fast. • Correct: These types of cars are very fast. 

 69. Keep and put 

• Incorrect: He kept the book on the table. 

• Correct: He put the book on the table.

 • Incorrect: He always puts his money in this box. 

• Correct: He always keeps his money in this box. 

Use keep of a more or less permanent resting place. Use put of only a temporary one.

 68. Joining sentences 

• Incorrect: This is my friend, he was at school with me. 

• Correct: This is my friend who was at school with me. 

• Incorrect: This is my house, I live here. 

• Correct: This is my house where I live. 

• Incorrect: This is an interesting story, I am reading it. 

• Correct: This is an interesting story which I am reading. 

Two main clauses which are not separated by a full stop should be linked by a conjunction or a relative pronoun. 

 67. Its and it’s 

These two words often cause confusion. 

Its is the possessive form of it. 

• Every country has its traditions. 

 It’s is the contracted form of it is or it has. 

• It’s raining. (= It is raining.)

 • It’s gone. (= It has gone.) 

 66. Inversion of subject and verb 

• Incorrect: Never I have seen such a sight.

 • Correct: Never have I seen such a sight.

 • Incorrect: Hardly I have had any rest for a week.

 • Correct: Hardly have I had any rest for a week. 

When the first word of the sentence is a negative, the main verb comes before the subject, as in a direct question. 

 65. Invent and discover 

• Incorrect: Who invented America?

 • Correct: Who discovered America? 

• Incorrect: Who discovered the telephone? 

• Correct: Who invented the telephone? 

Use invent of something which did not exist until man created it. 

Example: a computer or a telephone. 

Use discover of something which existed without man's knowledge. 

Example: mineral deposits, countries, continents, planets etc. 

 

64. Indirect questions 

The indirect question is really not a question at all. It has no inversion of subject and predicate as in a direct question. It does not use the auxiliary do either.

 Compare: 

• Direct: Where are you going?

 • Indirect: He asked me where I was going. (NOT He asked me where was I going?) 

 • Direct: When does he propose to start? 

• Indirect: I want to know when he proposes to start. (NOT I want to know when does he propose to start?) Note that we do not use a question mark at the end of an indirect question. 

 

 63. Imperative sentences 

• Incorrect: See that you will come for the meeting in time. 

• Correct: See that you come for the meeting in time.

 • Incorrect: Take care that you will not be cheated. 

• Correct: Take care that you are not cheated. 

It is wrong to use future tense in the subordinate clause when the verb in the main clause is in the imperative mood. 

In such clauses, the simple present should be used instead of the simple future. 

 62. If clauses 

• Incorrect: If it rains we would cancel the match. 

• Correct: If it rains we will cancel the match.

 • Incorrect: If you hit the dog, it would bite you. 

• Correct: If you hit the dog, it will bite you. 

 When the verb in the if-clause is in the simple present tense, we use will/shall/ can/may + infinitive in the main clause. 

• Incorrect: If you studied hard, you will get a first class. 

• Correct: If you studied hard, you would get a first class. When the verb in the if-clause is in the simple past tense, we use would/should/ could/might + infinitive in the main clause. Sentences of these types are used to talk about purely imaginary situations.

 • Incorrect: If you had studied hard, you would get a first class.

 • Correct: If you had studied hard, you would have got a first class. When the verb in the main clause is in the past perfect tense, we use would/ should/could/might + have + past participle in the main clause.

 61. I don't mind

 • Incorrect: 'Will you have some coffee?' 'I don't mind.' 

• Correct: 'Will you have some coffee?' 

'Thank you' 

OR 'No, thank you.' 

Say ‘Thanks’ or ‘Thank you’ while accepting an offer. 

Say ‘No, thanks’ or ‘No, thank you’ while declining an offer. 

'I don't mind' is rude. 

It shows indifference: that the person does not care whether he drinks coffee or not. 

'I don't mind' should be used only when it is permissible to indicate no strong preference. 

  60. Historic present 

When writing about a past event, we can use the present tense to make it appear as if the event is actually happening. 

Even if a person is dead, he or she can still be spoken of in the present tense. 

This is known as using the historic present. 

The following sentences are written using the historic present.

 • Winston Churchill is one of England’s greatest statesmen. 

• Captain Cook is responsible for white settlement in Australia. 

 59. Gerund 

• Incorrect: I am thinking to write a novel.

 • Correct: I am thinking of writing a novel. 

• Incorrect: We were prevented from enter the room.

 • Correct: We were prevented from entering the room. A preposition is followed by a gerund (-ing forms) and not an infinitive.

 • Incorrect: They insisted on me resigning the post. 

• Correct: They insisted on my resigning the post. 

• Incorrect: They objected to John playing for the other team. 

• Correct: They objected to John's playing for the other team.  A noun or a pronoun used before a gerund should be in the possessive case. Note that the possessive case should not be used with a gerund when the gerund is in the passive or when the noun or pronoun denotes a lifeless thing. 

• Incorrect: There is no danger of the roof's crashing. 

• Correct: There is no danger of the roof crashing.

58. Far and a long way

58. Far and a long way 

We use far in questions and negative clauses. • Did you walk far? 

• The railway station is not far from here. We use a long way in affirmative clauses.

 • We walked a long way. (NOT We walked far.) 

• The post office is a long way from here. Far is common in affirmative clauses with adverbs like too, so, enough and as. • You have walked a bit too far. 

57. Expressions without prepositions

 57. Expressions without prepositions 

The verbs discuss, enter, marry, lack, resemble and approach are normally followed by objects without prepositions.

 • Incorrect: She married with an old man. 

• Correct: She married an old man. 

• Incorrect: We must discuss about the plans.  

• Correct: We must discuss the plans. 

• Incorrect: The baby resembles to its dad. 

• Correct: The baby resembles its dad. 

 56. Expect and hope 

• Incorrect: She is hoping a raise.

 • Correct: She is expecting a raise. When we expect something we think that it will in fact happen. When we hope for something to happen, we would like it to happen, but we don't know whether it will. 

• She is expecting a baby. (= She is pregnant now.) 

• She is hoping that it will be a girl. (She doesn’t know whether it will be a boy or a girl, but she will be happier if it is a girl.) We can expect good or bad things to happen, but we only hope for good things. 

55. Except and except for

 55. Except and except for 

• Incorrect: Except you, I like everyone. 

• Correct: Except for you, I like everyone. 

• Incorrect: Except this mistake, you did very well.

 • Correct: Except for this mistake, you did very well.  Except can be used without for after words like all, every, no, everything, anybody, nowhere, whole etc. In other cases we usually use except for. 

• He cleaned all the rooms except the bedroom. OR He cleaned all the rooms except for the bedroom. (Except can be used without for after all.) 

• Nobody was invited except Peter and Alice. OR Nobody was invited except for Peter and Alice.

 • I like everyone except / except for you. 

• They were all tired except / except for John. • That was a good essay, except for a few spelling mistakes. (NOT That was a good essay, except a few spelling mistakes.) Before prepositions and conjunctions we use except. 

54. Especially and specially

 54. Especially and specially 

Both specially and especially can often be used with the same meaning. 

• It was not specially / especially cold. Especially can mean 'above all'. 

• Sometimes I feel rather lonely, especially in the evenings. Specially is used to mean 'for a particular purpose'. 

• I made this cake specially for you. 

53. Enough

 53. Enough 

• Incorrect: He was enough foolish to trust her. 

• Correct: He was foolish enough to trust her. 

• Incorrect: If I were enough rich, I would buy a new car.

 • Correct: If I were rich enough, I would buy a new car. 

The adverb enough comes after the adjective which it qualifies. 

End and finish

  52. End and finish 

When followed by a direct object, finish means complete. 

• I have finished my job. (= I have completed my job.)

 • You never let me finish a sentence. (= You never let me complete a sentence.) Finish can be followed by an -ing form. 

• Have you finished writing that novel? When followed by a direct object, end means stop.

 • They have decided to end their affair. (NOT They have decided to finish their affair.) 

 End cannot be followed by an -ing form. When they are not followed by objects, end and finish have similar meanings. 

• When does the concert finish/end? 

51. Elder and eldest

 51. Elder and eldest 

• Incorrect: He is elder than me. 

• Correct: He is older than me. 

• Incorrect: He is the eldest man in the village.

 • Correct: He is the oldest man in the village. Elder and eldest can be used to talk about the order of birth of the members of a family. Note that they are only used before nouns. 

After a verb we use older or oldest. • My elder/older brother is a writer. • His eldest/oldest son is in the Army. • He is older than me. (NOT He is elder than me. 

Elder and eldest can’t be used in the predicative (after a verb) position.)

Double negatives

  46. Double negatives 

Never use a negative verb and a negative qualifier (e.g. nothing, hardly, scarcely, nobody etc.) together.

 • Incorrect: I haven't nothing to prove. 

• Correct: I have nothing to prove. 

• Incorrect: Alice can't hardly wait until her birthday.

 • Correct: Alice can hardly wait until her birthday. 

• Incorrect: There wasn't nobody at the door. 

• Correct: There was nobody at the door.

Lessons 47-50

 47. During and for 

During is used to say when something happens.

 For is used to say how long it lasts. 

• Incorrect: I was in France for the summer. 

• Correct: I was in France during the summer. 

• Incorrect: I was in France during two months. 

• Correct: I was in France for two months. 

 48. Each and every 

Use each and every together only if you want to convey very strong emphasis. 

• Incorrect: Each and every person wore a hat. 

• Correct: Each person wore a hat.

 • Correct: Everybody wore a hat. 

49. Each other and one another 

In modern English each other and one another are used in the same way. One another is preferred when we are making general statements. 

• They have stopped talking to each other/one another. Both expressions can be used in the possessive form. 

• They would sit for hours listening to each other's / one another's tales.

 50. East, eastern, north, northern etc. 

The words east, west etc., are used for clearly defined places. The words eastern, western etc., are used when we are talking about vague areas.

 Compare: 

• The northern part of the country is hilly.

 • The north side of the house has four windows. 

Capital letters Capital letters are used at the beginning of East, Eastern, North, Northern etc., when they come in official place names. 

• South Africa • the Middle East 

• North Korea 

 In other cases these words begin with small letters. 

• The sun rises in the east. 

• He came from the west.

  

Do and make

 45. Do and make 

Do is sometimes confused with make. 

Make is used to talk about building or creating. 

• Let's make a cake. 

• I once made a toy train.

Do is sometimes used instead of make. This is common when we want to sound casual about a creative activity. 

 • 'What shall we eat?' 'Well, let me do an omelette.' (More casual than ‘Let me make an omelette.’) Common fixed expressions with do and make Both do and make are used in some common fixed expressions. 

Do good, harm, business, one's best, a favor, sport, exercise, one's hair, one's teeth, one's duty, 50mph etc. 

Make a journey, an offer, arrangements, a suggestion, a decision, an attempt, an effort, an excuse, an exception, a mistake, a noise, a phone call, money, a profit, a fortune, love, peace, war, a bed, a fire, progress etc.